Samui, or Koh Samui, is one of the most tranquil island destinations in Thailand, located in the Gulf of Thailand, about 700 kilometers south of Bangkok and 85 kilometers east of Surat Thani, Samui is the Gulf of Siam’s largest island as well as the country’s largest island, after Phuket and Ko Chang.
Due to its numerous coconut palms and harvesting of more than two million coconuts per month, Samui is also sometimes referred to as the Coconut Island. With its incredible environment bestowed with lush green tropical areas, swaying coconut palms, pristine white sandy beaches, sparkling blue waters, and dazzling waterfalls and beautiful ponds, Samui draws people from across the world.
Hence, Samui boasts of superb choices to cater to all types of visitors, from budget conscious and well-heeled to travelers seeking privacy and luxury. Other than hotels and resorts, accommodation options such as villas are also much popular among the vacationers.
Koh Samui boasts of a number of established companies that help you make available villa rentals in the destination. These companies render all that are required to make your vacation experience as convenient and hassle free process providing with several villa options which are put forwarded on behave of your needs and requirements, as well as providing a personal touch in villas which quite often lacks in most of the hotels and resorts.
Vacationer opting for luxurious villas usually would be sharp and sensitive demanding much better service and detailed attention on every aspect of the villas. Mostly, the villa service providers ensure all discerning vacationers to the fullest with a step ahead of their expectations, needs and requirements.
Many of the service providers come with a team of professionals who stay 24 hours online to satisfy your needs to find the most appropriate villas rental in Samui very close to the desired destination. Further, they offer 24 hours active online booking system, which in turn enable you to book or to seek necessary information about the site.
These providers ensure a response with personal assistance to enable you to find the preferred villa at the destination of yours. Some of the villa rental providers even render the services of expert property managers to help vacationer with every aspect of villa rentals in Koh Samui.
To a great extent vacationers prefer Samui as there vacation destination while the time of February to June, the time when the weather is dry and hot, to enjoy the fullest of the travel season. While the time of July it starts rainy season which ends only at October, yet there is abundance of sunbeams daylight between the spell of rain.
Then from October to January finds now and then the heavy winds. The most excellent time to enjoy Samui travel is while the time of February to June-the time when villas rental in Samui is at the rushing threshold.
In spite of rapid developing pace, Samui always have sustained its magnificence and magnetism as a tropical beach with white sands and coconut trees, this vacation destination has been well-known for quality coconuts which grow intensely all over the place. With exquisite beaches and soothing bays, ensures to delight every heart and soul leading to a calm and quiet atmosphere.
No wonder why Samui has been the vacationers destination as it provides with diversity of landscape, vistas, flora and fauna, off the beaten track places, beaches, waterfalls and hill top trails, however keeping the place calm and quiet and apt for the peace lovers.
With the eternal beauty of Samui always comes into demand of the vacationers and travelers to enjoy it to the fullest and thus the need for the villas rental in Samui arise while the seasonal time.
Just be at a mouse click distance from leading villa rental providers in the area and get pleasure from their outstanding services. At a mouse click distance you can have access to their online booking service system as well as personal backing would be provided for the clients to have the apt villa to the destination without any hassle. Now take pleasure while you’re touring all around the Thailand with excellent villas rental services and ensure yourself with the most excellent service. Have it and feel the difference yourself to enjoy the vacation to the very best.

f you’re one of those people who every winter puts out 10,000 holiday lights or every summer keeps the air conditioning cold enough to make frozen treats on the kitchen counter – or whether you’re like everyone else who simply likes the modern convenience of electrical – then you should care about how we will generate electricity in the future.
We are in no danger of running out of coal, the primary fuel source for electricity generation in the US and many other parts of the world. And we could have as many new glowing nuclear power plants as we want. But the reality is that the pollution and safety impacts of these electricity-generating technologies forecast their necessary demise:
1) The problems with coal-fired power plants include sulfur (acid rain) and mercury pollution; coal-fired power plants are the biggest source of greenhouse gases in the world; and coal mining scars land and people alike.
2) Nuclear power plants are very clean in terms of emissions of typical pollutants, including carbon dioxide (the principal greenhouse gas), but the potential for accidents and terrorist strikes has most people doubting the wisdom of more nuclear power. And let’s not forget that we still don’t know what to do with the tons of long-term radioactive waste nuclear power plants produce.
So what does the future look like for electricity generation? We must start making major strides towards cleaner technologies like wind, solar, wave, and biomass. Today we talk about wind energy in an article that was adapted from materials made available by Lester Brown and the Earth Policy Institute.
People have been harnessing the power of the wind for centuries. The concept of wind energy is simple: the wind pushes against angled blades, causing them to move (much like the sail on a boat); the blades are attached to a hub and cause it to turn, which in turn can drive other components.
In olden days – back when wind-powered devices were called windmills – the turning motion of the hub was transferred to mechanical devices such as grist mills or groundwater pumps. graphic of wind turbines In a modern wind turbine, the hub drives an electrical generator and the output is electricity.
The modern wind turbine has come a long way in terms of sophistication, and the designs of today’s wind turbines are elegant and very efficient compared to wind turbines from even a decade or two ago. Designers have also solved some problems associated with early wind turbines, such as birds dying by flying into them. Additional advancements have been made in siting technology – wind turbines can also be sited off-shore now.
With wind-generated electricity, the principal production cost is the capital outlay for initial construction. Since wind is a free fuel, the only ongoing cost is for maintenance. Given the recent volatility of natural gas prices, the stability graph of wind power cost; shows cost has come down from 38 cents per kilowatt hour in 1982 to 4 cents per kilowatt hour in 2002 of wind power prices is particularly appealing. With the possibility of even higher costs of natural gas in the future, natural gas-fired plants may be used increasingly as backup for wind-generated electricity.
When the wind industry first began to develop in California in the early 1980s, wind-generated electricity cost 38 cents per kilowatt-hour. Since then it has dropped to 4 cents or less in prime wind sites. And some long-term supply contracts have been signed for 3 cents per kilowatt-hour. By 2020, many European wind farms will be generating electricity at 2 cents per kilowatt-hour, making it cheaper than all other sources of electricity.
Wind-generating capacity worldwide is growing at over 30% per year and has jumped from less than 5,000 megawatts in 1995 to 39,000 megawatts in 2003 – an increase of nearly eight-fold. The fossil fuel with the highest growth rate – natural gas – grew at just over 2% annually during the same period. Oil grew at less than 2% annually, and coal at less than 1%. Nuclear generating capacity expanded by 2% annually.
Wind is appealing for several reasons. It is abundant, cheap, inexhaustible, widely distributed, clean, and climate-benign – a set of attributes that no other energy source can match. When the US Department of Energy (DOE) released its first wind resource inventory in 1991, it pointed out that three wind-rich states – North Dakota, Kansas, and Texas – had enough harnessable wind energy to satisfy all of the nation’s electricity needs. Those who had previously thought of wind as a marginal potential source of energy obviously were surprised by this finding.
In retrospect, we now know that the 1991 data was a gross underestimate of the potential of this renewable energy source, because it was based on the technologies available in 1991. Advances in wind turbine design since then have enabled turbines to operate at lower wind speeds, to convert wind into electricity more efficiently, and to harness a much larger wind regime. Such advancement have perhaps tripled the amount of harvestable wind. Thus, while the DOE could say in 1991 that North Dakota, Kansas, and Texas had enough wind-energy potential to supply all national ELECTRICITY needs, we may now be able to say that they have enough harnessable wind energy to supply all national ENERGY needs. (See sidebar for more information.)
Once we get cheap electricity from wind, we have the option of electrolyzing water to produce hydrogen, which provides a way of both storing and efficiently transporting wind energy. At night, when the demand for electricity drops, the hydrogen generators can be turned on to build up reserves.
Once in storage, hydrogen can be used to fuel power plants, in much the same way that natural gas is used. This hydrogen can be used either as a backup for wind power or as an alternative to natural gas, especially if rising prices make natural gas prohibitively costly for electricity generation.
Hydrogen is also the fuel of choice for the fuel-cell engines that automakers worldwide are working on for our everyday vehicles. While hydrogen-powered vehicles may still seem far off in the future, if push comes to shove on the climate front – i.e. once it becomes more obvious that we must stop burning so much oil and pumping so much CO2 into the atmosphere – cars with gasoline-burning internal combustion engines could be converted to hydrogen.
Europe is leading the world into the age of wind energy, spurred in part by concerns about global warming. The record heat wave in Europe in August 2003 that scorched crops and claimed 35,000 lives has accelerated the replacement of climate-disrupting coal with clean energy sources.
The European Wind Energy Association projects that Europe’s wind-based electricity-generating capacity will nearly triple from 2003 to 2010. By 2020, wind-generated electricity is projected to satisfy graph of wind power capacity by country; shows a steady upward trend for all countries, with Germany leading, followed by Spain and the U S, then Denmark and India the residential needs of 195 million Europeans – half of the region’s population.
After developing most of its existing 28,400 megawatts of capacity on land, Europe is now tapping offshore wind resources as well. A 2004 assessment of Europe’s offshore wind-energy potential concluded that if Europe moves more aggressively to develop its vast offshore resources, wind could be supplying all of the region’s residential electricity by 2020.
Many countries in Europe are pushing hard to bring in more wind power. Here are a few examples.
1) The United Kingdom is requiring an investment of over $12 billion in off-shore wind farms that should satisfy the residential electricity needs of 10 million of the country’s 60 million people.
2) Tiny Denmark, which led Europe into the wind era with the development of its own wind resources, now gets an impressive 20 percent of its electricity from wind.
3) Germany overtook the United States in terms of wind-based generating capacity in 1997. Now Spain is close to overtaking the United States as well.
Europe’s leadership on wind energy has given it a major economic bonus: nine of the world’s ten leading wind turbine manufacturers are in three countries – enmark, Germany, and Spain. These happen to be the three countries that have had the strongest and most stable market incentives for developing wind energy.
In the US, wind power has grown 26% per year on average over the last 5 years, but the United States is lagging in the development of wind energy. This is not because we can’t compete technologically with Europe in manufacturing wind turbines, but because of a lack of leadership in Washington. The wind production tax credit of 1.5 cents per kilowatt-hour, which was adopted in 1992 to establish parity with fossil-fuel subsidies, has been permitted to lapse three times in the last five years, most recently at the end of 2003 when Congress failed to pass a new energy bill. Such uncertainties disrupt planning throughout the wind power industry.
The United States, with its advanced technology and wealth of wind resources, should be a leader in this field, but unfortunately it continues picture of wind farm to rely heavily on coal – a nineteenth century energy source – for much of its electricity at a time when European countries are replacing coal power with wind power.
Europe is not only leading the world into the wind age, it is also leading the world into the post-fossil fuel age – the age of renewable energy and climate stabilization. By demonstrating the potential for harnessing the energy in wind, Europe is unveiling the new energy economy for the rest of the world.
Lester Brown is founder and president of Earth Policy Institute. He has been described by the Washington Post as “one of the world’s most influential thinkers” and as “the guru of the global environmental movement” by The Telegraph of Calcutta. His most recent book is Plan B: Rescuing a Planet Under Stress and a Civilization in Trouble.
One final note about wind power. There are naysayers out there who claim that we would have to blanket the country with “wind-meels” to replace all our coal and nuclear plants. Don’t believe it. Remember that on a wind farm, the “footprint” of the operation – the turbine base plus the service roads – occupies only 5% of the land area. That makes wind power a perfect partner with open-space operations like farming and ranching.
And oh, by the way, our current electricity-generating technologies are blanketing the country with pollution!

Did you know that almost 90% of people who go on ordinary diets will NOT lose weight long term? It’s true, and as many of you know, it’s not YOU who has the problem, it’s often the diet you’ve trusted to help you that’s fatally flawed instead.

So you are ready to try an acai berry diet, right? You’ve heard the buzz, you’ve seen the stories and you’ve watched the amazing testimonials given by celebrities and ordinary people alike. Here are a few very important details you must not miss if you want to have success.

Never Settle for Impostor Acai Berry Products

They are out there, and they will do you NO good at all. Purple color does not mean genuine, authentic acai either. Read the label and do your due diligence instead.

Never Buy Acai “Fruit” Directly in a Bucket, Bundle or Bunch

You aren’t going to get the real thing, unless you are living in Brazil ( or close to the Amazon rain forest). Acai fruit is harvested only twice per year, and has a life span of approximately 24 hours before it perishes. Any offer that tells you otherwise is a scam

Drink Lots and Lots of Fluids, Too!

I prefer to drink tons of water on an Acai diet, and find it helps me “clear” toxins faster, feel lighter and more clear headed, and essentially allows me to capitalize on all of the tremendous cleansing benefits of acai berry without clogging up my body with all kinds of other junk while I’m juicing! I recommend you do the same thing if you want my style results – which if you haven’t noticed, are phenomenal for sure!

And Remember – if you HAVEN’T been able to lose weight before…it’s NOT your fault! Knowledge is POWER, and the most important step on the path to a firm, fit & beautiful body is information, EDUCATION and empowerment!

Herb Garden Kits                                                                                                                                 At hand are several of us that appeal to grow herbs on our own although lack the knowledge of how to get on track.  At hand are many questions that extend to mind when preparatory an herb garden.  For instance, grown from seeds, which would do better? Which type of soil would be correct to grow herbs in? The answers to these questions will be answered by buying an herb garden kit and much further.   Herb garden kits includes a massive group of herbs which can be classified into Italian herbs, international herbs, culinary herbs, herbal tea herbs, German herbs, salsa herbs and much, much more.  

All herb kits are not alike although hold comparable contents in which to get ongoing with.  You will unearth all herb kits will contain seeds.  Specific herb kits will include a dome which will supply the resources for regular humidity and temperature for the herb plants to do well and to grow a healthy structure of roots. An instructional guidebook will also come with the kit.  This will enable the herb farmer a easy to grasp lead to accomplish what they need to do with their herbs.  Present are some kits that provide recipes for aid on the herbs you are growing.  Various websites which sell herb garden kits often will expound a newsletter you can sign up for and will present recipes and advantageous information as an addition.  A planter will be provided in the kit in which the herbs will be grown in. 

As soon as more, all kits are not the same although; largely kits will contain either soil or pellets in which to grow the seeds with also.   Herb kits hold many benefits for growing herbs indoors.  Number one, it is much simpler take pleasure in the herbs since they are easy for you to access.  You don?t bear to drag yourself out to the garden just to include a tiny seasoning to the pot on the stove in the kitchen.  

 It?s really as effortless to harvest herbs and freeze them for tomorrows consume as well.  And, with the steadfast growing conditions that is provided to plants in an indoor setting, you need not be weighed down about having to insure that plants and herbs that don?t endure during winter season being winterized. It is huge to have herbs in apartments because they prosper in environments which provide constant temperature.  Plus, all herb garden kits are dissimilar although largely are compact and diminutive. 

Herbs are great for humble spaces or apartments.  Another thing, it is not simple to asses which area in the garden will get the aptly amount of light for each plant when growing herbs outdoors.  Plus, rain is good it makes it simple to water your herbs although too much drizzle can also be destructive.  By having your herbs mature indoors with instructional guide included, guess work can be taken out of this hobby.  Your will take part in booming herbs every time.    

 There?s probably a greater feeling of triumph when you master the art of growing herbs and can grow any kind of herb in your garden.  Although it does indeed demand effort to acquire there and the most excellent way to understand is through an herb kit where the challenges are taken out and you are left with the enjoyment of the herbs. The supplementary you get to know the herbs you are growing, you will be able to place them into your garden afterward, and you are on your way to becoming an herb expert!

It’s not a surprise that people are finally starting to harvest the power of solar energy these days. Plants have been doing it for billions of years and now with the economic recession, rising energy costs and global warming people too have begun to start building their own solar panels or buy brand new ones which are quite costly. Of course in order to build your own solar panels you need to be in a warm enough weather to do so; hence why some of the most popular regions for do it yourself solar panels include Australia, New Zealand, Ireland and the southern states of USA.

With all the global warming and the recession more and more people are turning to renewable energy solutions like home made solar panels for the simplest of reasons: not only you can save thousands of dollars each year by cutting your electricity bills but you can start living off of your own homemade grid power and no longer have to be affected by power outages.

A solar panel provides one of the most cost-effective sources of energy. In fact, once you get your solar power system installed, or better yet build your own solar panels, the energy it generates is completely free and endless. A single solar panel won’t be enough to power up your entire house. However a set of 4 – 8 solar panels can supply enough electricity to go completely off of grid power and stop spending crazy amounts on your heating and electricity bills.

The great thing is that you can store the unused energy in storage batteries for later use. First thing you want to do is check your building regulations. Some laws may prevent you from installing these panels due to safety concerns or property risk assessment. When it comes to building your own solar panels, there are lots of awesome review sites and guides out there, but here are a few tips to get you started:

First of all, think about what you’re going to mount your solar cells on. As far as we know, plywood is ideal although you could use OSB materials but plywood is much more suitable and durable to handle the weather. There will also be some soldering work to connect the solar cells together thus you will need a soldering gun, goggles and gloves to protect yourself.

OSB materials aren’t as great as plywood mainly because they tend to absorb the water when it rains. Building solar panels isn’t as hard as many may think however it requires patience and a solid how-to guide to follow.

A proven “how to make solar power and solar panels” guide will provide all the information you need to build solar panels and get up and running. There are a few of these out there but the best guide we’ve come across so far is the Earth4Energy guide. When it comes to building your own solar panels you need to ask yourself – Why pay thousands for brand new solar panels when you can easily start building your own all by yourself in your own backyard at a fraction of the cost? It’s a great point, so before you go out and invest in solar panels make sure to get one of these how-to guides and see if you have what it takes to build your own solar panels and save big on electricity and heating bills!

Introduction
1. Rice (Oryza sativa L) is most extensively cultivated cereal crop in the world. It is a staple food of about 2.4 billion or more. In South Asia as whole rice provides 23% per capita energy and 16% per capita protein. Its protein content is modest 7% but it provides minerals, vitamins and fiber too.
Table 1. Rice Production Statistics in the world
Country 1994 yield/hact/hac 1998 yield/hact/hac Differencet/ hac Percentage Increase over years
China 5.9 6.1 0.2 3.28
India 2.8 2.89 0.01 0.35
Indonesia 4.3 4.1 -0.2 -4.88
Vietnam 3.5 3.9 0.4 10.26
Japan 6.8 6.4 -0.4 -6.25
Unites States 6.7 6.3 -0.4 -6.35
Korea 6.1 6.9 +0.8 11.59
Pakistan 2.5 2.8 +0.3 10.71
Egypt 7.9 – - -
Iran 4.4 – - -
Peru 5.8 – - -
Table 2. Rice Production in Indian States
1994 1998 Difference
West Bengal 1.9 2.2 +0.3
Haryana 2.5 2.8 +0.3
Punjab 3.7 3.5 -0.2
Tamil Nadu 2.3 3.0 +0.7
Andhra Pradesh 2.6 2.9 +0.3
Jammu & Kashmir
Kashmir 2.5 2.8 +0.3
Jammu 1.6 1.9 +0.3
Jammu and Kashmir had the unique distinction of having introduced land reforms. About 1.82 lakh hectares of land were distributed. Out of it about 0.94 lakh hectare were distributed free of cost among peasants. Although absentee landlordism was abolished. Over years a neo-land holders have come into existence which are comparable to absentee land owners if not landlords holding large “Jagirs”.
The reform was bound to achieve the twin purpose of giving the cultivator his rightful place in the social system and also ensure more efficient utilization of the state’s resources.
The main objective to achieve self-sufficiency in terms of rice production, although leaped forward from mere few lakh tones to 0.86 million tones. However, the major break through has been hampered due to various causes. A problem cause analysis done by us in the past could be summarized in Fig. 1.
Problems
Rice production in the State of Jammu & Kashmir is predominantly a mono-cropped activity. The area is about 40% in Jammu Division & 60% in Kashmir Division. The irrigation availability is around 91% as against 99% in Haryana & Punjab. The Haryana and Punjab irrigation is assured, which means free from climatic changes, as most of it come from underground water sources. Our irrigation potential in Kashmir for rice is snow bound. Most of it is through canal system, which dry up during draughts and flood during heavy rains and excessive snow.
In spite of the climatic changes over years Rice production has registered growth which may fluctuate with climatic conditions. Our food grain production of 22.59 lakh tones by the end of 9th plan registered a quantitum jump over 8th plan productivity of 13.56 lakh tones. A similar up ward trend is discernible with regard to chemical fertilizers which have gone up from 43400 metric tones to 72400 metric tones during the same period.
The common enhancement factors like;
1. Improved seeds including hybrids both seed production, certification and distribution among farmers needs critical evaluation.
2. The use of production recommendations by the farmers needs effective transfer of technology mechanism with wide spread use of electronic and print media along with on the job-training modules to Agriculture Extension Workers.
3. The whether dependent irrigation system has to be replaced with permanent or semi-assured irrigation potential especially in Khandi belts.
4. Timely supply of inputs like fertilizers, weedicides, fungicides, pesticides, along with fortification of humus (animal waste or organic manure use) & or other essential nutrients like potash, zinc sulphate etc. as per soil testing reports.
Needs and solutions
Low productivity causes: analysis scenario can be seen Fig. 1
a) Non-availability of quality paddy seed
Total land under rice
Kashmir Division 1.61 hectares
Distribution cropping area in hac
High Altitude – 0.3 lac hectare
Low altitude – 1.3 lac hectare
Seed requirement
Certified seed : Seed rate 60 Kg/hac
i.e. 60 x 1.60 hac = 96 lac kgs
For 10% replacement/year = 9.6 lac Kg.
9,600 quintals
say 10,000 quintals
Thus we need certified seed in the ratio of;
High altitude rice varieties 2200 quintals
Low altitude rice 7800 quintals
Total 10000 quintals
For above certified seed we need Foundation Seed approx.
High altitude belt 50 quintals land
Low altitude belt 150 quintals 100 kanals – SKUAST, may produce it
Breeder seed needs
High altitude varieties 1.5q land
Low altitude varieties 4.5q 10 kansls – SKUAT may produce it
Certified seed need 10,000 quintals
Land 2000- 3000 kanals
Say 5000 kanals
10 seed villages of 500 kanals in 6 Districts – can be used to produce it under joint supervision of SKUAST-K & Department Officers
or
Allow post-graduate unemployed graduate 12 to supervision village seed production under SKUAST scientist and seed certification staff of department.
(G.M.Wani)
Director Extension Education
Document II : Targets and achievements
Targets & Objectives:
a) The food availability per person per day as per the ICMR recommendations is 420 grams. The food produced in J&K in 301 gms/day/person. Therefore, we have roughly 1/3rd food grain shortage in the State. However, the shortages may be higher in view of the report of Dr. M.S.Swaminathan (2003) which says that the consumption of food grains in J&K is higher than those recommended by ICMR norms. In rural Kashmir rice consumption is 489 gm (per person per day and in urban it is 428 gm per person per day). Thus per capita rice consumption is higher than recommended ICMR norms.
b) Projecting the population of 40 million with rice as staple food, in an area of 1.60 lac hectares for rice we need a yield potential of 5 tonnes/ha
Explanation:
Assuming 500 gm rice per person per day, we would need 2 quintals paddy per person per annum. i.e for 40 lac people, we need 80 lac quintel or 8 lac tones. An area of 1.60 lac hectares under rice would need roughly 5t/hac production to meet our requirements. With the present productivity of 2.5t/h in Kashmir division, the target is difficult but could be achieved. Yet with increase in population over years, we may find “Self sufficiency a dream only”
To attain productivity of Rice at the rate of 5t/hac both in higher and lower belts. This would need replacement of present seed varieties in the farmer’s fields with higher yielding varieties evolved by SKUAST. A modest approach to replace the 10% paddy seed each year can be executed under present infrastructure and land availability. The question of future sustainability of rice production to feed increasing population may need further increase in seed replacement schedules by 20 -30% each year which may need a proper planning and organization.
Aim for future : Self sufficiency in Rice production
Target : 5t/hac production of Rice
Facts
1. Under farmers field we have attained a yield of 3-5 t/hac using improved seed. The details of the investigation at formers field and by the farmer may be seen – Table 2.1
The improved package of practices prepared by SKUAST and when used by farmers resulted into total returns of Rs. 84,000/hac as against Rs. 54,000/hac by usual farmers practices. Thus under present conditions a net profit of Rs. 63,500/hac was attainable from Rice production which indicates rice production a profitable enterprise – Table 2.2
2. During Kharif 2002 & 2003, the three SKUAST varieties yield 6t/hac under farmers fields. These minikit trails were conducted jointly by SKUAST & Agricultural Department experts in all the 6 districts of the valley. They were monitored and discussed in the Zonal Research Extension Advisory Committee meetings held in 2002 & 2003. The details variety wise yields/hac are shown in Table 2.3 for lower belt rice fields Table 2.4 for higher altitude rice fields.
An review of the two tables indicate that under upper rice land belts (high altitudes) the SKUAST varieties have proved a potential of 4.5 q/hac and under low rice zone, lower belts, a higher potential of 6t/hac was attained. The two combined suffice to our present needed yield under yield conditions on an average 5t/hac. Thus, the target is attainable & achievable.
3. Under scientific farm conditions at SKUAST Rice Research Station, Khudwani, a yield potential of 8.8 t/hac was achieved Table 2.5, otherwise too under field conditions with use of production recommendation a yield potential of 6.8 t/hac was reported Table 2.6
Under Village Linked Extension Education programmes, the farmers practices yielded 3.3 t/hac and when one or two intervention like replace of wooden plough with Shalimar plough was made a yield potential of 5.4 t/hac was achieved. Thus, under present status of technology already demonstrated to farmers through Agriculture Department, a yield potential required 5 – 6 t/hac has been demonstrated. Now it is for effective extension mechanism at Directorate of Agriculture level to extend the technological awareness. For detailed policy projections, document III may be seen.
4. Hybrid Seed Propagation
The hybrid rice production technology in China has yielded 9.9 t/hac of rice. This coupled with growth duration of 123 days and milling recovery rate of 68.7% do promise to boost our productivity once more as in 1970 through use of Chinese hybrid seed technology but this hybrid technology is webbed with certain problems too.
a. Use new seeds every year: It is a seed dependant technological intervention, which under our present set up may prove more failure than success on its wide use. However, for pilot field studies and under research management farms we may continue its use as future long term strategy.
b. Seed rate is 20Kg per hectare as against 60 Kg per hectare, but seeds harvested from previous hybrid crops can not be used. Until our farmers are fully trained and acquainted with the technology. Its use needs to be limited to Govt, University or progressive farmers farms only.
c. The advantage of hybrid seed with less seed rate is hidden in its hybrid vigor potential. These seeds have rapid root growth and greater leaf area development potential. Thus more number of spikelets per unit area, increase productivity.
Detailed requirements for hybrid rice cultivation at present are beyond the capacity of our farmers. A detailed description on hybrid seeds in China can be seen in any web page & is reproduced herein for reference (Annexure-1)
Performance of participatory Seed Production Programme conducted in two Districts of Kashmir Valley during Khairf, 2004 (Crop Rice)
Crop Name of farmers Village Variety Class of seed Area sown {ha) Qty. of seed product,q/kanal or q/0.05 ha)
Paddy 1 Nazir Ahmad DarS/O. Habib Ullah Dar Chatterhama Jehlum Breeders seed 0.2 4.50
2 Mohd.Maqbool Wani -do- -do- -do- -do- 4.75
3 Gh.Nabi DarS/O.Ab.Rehman Dar -do- -do- -do- -do- 4.75
4 Ab.Rashid DarS/O Ab.Gaffar Dar -do- -do- -do- -do- 3.87
5 Mohd Rafiq DarS/O Ab.Gaffar Dar -do- -do- -do- -do- 3.50
6 Parveez Ahmad MirS/O Gh.Mohd.Mir -do- Chenab Foundation seed -do- 3.00
7 Mohd. Ashraf MirS/O Ab.Razak Mir -do- -do- -do- -do- 3.60
8 Ab.Ahad BhatS/O Mohd Ismail Bhat Telbal Jehlum -do- -do- 3.00
9 Mudasir Ahmad Bhat -do- -do- -do- -do- 3.60
10 Gh.Nabi bhatS/O Ali Mohd Bhat -do- Chenab Foundation seed -do- 4.00
11 Gh.Nabi Wani -do- -do- -do- -do- 3.60
12 Ab.Rehman BhatS/O Abdul Aziz Bhat Khudwani Juhlum Foundation seed -do- 4.00
13 Ab.Rehman BhatS/o Mohd.Sidiq Bhat -do- -do- -do- -do- 4.00
14 Bashir Ahmad BhatS/O Md.Shaban Bhat -do- -do- -do- -do- 4.00
15 Mohd Shaban Mattoo S/O Gh.Rasool Mattoo -do- -do- -do- -do- 4.00
16 Gh.Mohd.DarS/O Gh.Rasool Bhat -do- -do- -do- -do- 4.0
17 Shabir Ahmad BhatS/O Gh.Rasool Bhat Shalimar Chenab Breeders seed -do- 3.50
18 Ah.Ahad BhatS/O Riyaz Ahmad Bhat Shalimar Chenab Breeder seed 0.2 3.00
19 Bashir Ahmad LoneS/O Gh.Nabi Lone -do- -do- -do- -do- 3.60
20 Md.Maqbool MirS/O Gh.Rasool Mir -do- -do- -do- -do- 3.0
Cost of Production and Returns ha-1
Cost/Unit Field
Experimental station with approved package of practice Farmers practice
Total direct cost of production per hectare (up to packaging) Rs.20,500/- Rs.14,500/-
Total return/ha Rs.84,000/- Rs.59,000/-
Net profit Rs.63,500/- Rs.44,500/-
Average performance of Minikit Results of Paddy over the
Valley (6 Districts during Kharif 2002 & Kharif 2003.
A. Lower Belts
S.N Name of the Cultivar Yield/hacKharif Kharif2002 2003 Mean Rank %increase over check(Jehlum)
1. SKAU-105 63.63 62.35 62.99 1 10.51% over Jehlum and 17% over Chinab (SKAU-23)
2. SKAU-337 63.73 56.71 60.22 2 5% & 13.6% Respectively.
3. SKAU-27(Jehlum) 57.84 56.23 57.00 3
4. SKAU-23 (Chinab) —— 53.21 53.21 4
Average performance of Minikit Results of Paddy over the Valley (6 Districts during Kharif 2002 & Kharof 2003).
B. Higher Belts
S.No. Name of the cultivar Yield /hac.Kharif 2002 Kharif 2003 Mean Rank % increase over 332 & Khosar (check entries)
1. K-312 43.33 42.07 42.70 3 Both the entries i.e K312 & K475 have yielded below over the check entries
2. K-475 45.59 41.62 43.06 2
3. K-332 42.04 42.71 42.35 4
4. K-429 (Kohsar) 50.17 42.81 46.05 1
Average performance of SKAU-105 in District Yield Trial conducted at Rice Research & Regional Station Khudwani Anantnag from 1989-2003.
SN Vty. 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1998 2000 2001 2002 2003
1. SKAU-105 68.52 67.06 70.18 60.20 62.50 70.60 67.75 72.20 75.70 79.20 84.20 88.60
2. SKAU-5Check 52.96 55.40 48,57 53.00 52.50 63.05 51.94 – - – - -
3. Jehlum Check – - – - – - – 63.54 66.90 69.53 70.78 74.50
Seed Supplied to the different KVK’s for multiplication by the Division of Plant Breeding & Genetics
S.No. Name of the KVK’s Crop Variety Class of seed Qty. supplied (Kgs)
1. KVK, Malangpora (Pulwama) Maize C15 FS 12
Paddy Jehlum FS 30
2. KVK, Pombay (Anantnag) Paddy K332 BS 160
Kohsaar BS 92
Maize C15 FS 50
Shalimar KGMaize-1 BS -
Shalimar KG Maize-2 BS -
French Bean Shalimar French Bean -1 BS -
Cowpea Shalimar Cowpea-1 BS 5
Moong Shalimar Moong-1 BS 5
3. KVK, Srinagar Maize C15 FS 15
4. KVK, Kupwara Paddy Jehlum FS 80
Minikit results of check cultivars
A.
Lower Belts Higher belts
Jehlum Kohsar / K 332
S. No. Districts n Yield (t/ha) n Yield (t/ha)
1. Srinagar 6 5.9 2 6.8
2. Budgam 4 6.2 3 4.2
3. Anantnag 6 4.6 2 (K 332) 3.9
4. Pulwama 6 6.8 2 4.0
5. Baramulla 6 5.8 2 4.0
6. Kupwara 5 5.3 1 6.2
B. Experimental yield _____ 6 – 6.5 ——— 4.2 – 4.7
Critical gaps (B-A) ——- 0.7 -1.2 Nil
C. State average irrespective of cultivars 2.1 Critical gaps 3- 4 t /ha-1
D. Production farm average May be 2.5 -do-
E. Yield average in farmer’s plot through various trial by SKUAST-K under IVLP programme 3.3 (farmersPractice) 5.4(With technological intervation)
Document No. III Future Policies
A. Technology Transfer in agro-ecosystems perspective
1. To meet the growing needs of food grains for increasing population emphasis should be given on small production systems to achieve sustainability and optimum resource use. Benefits of agro-ecosystem analysis in the form of resource inventory, identification of crops, cropping patterns and potential production zones, problem and causes analysis for low productivity etc., need to be considered.
2. Small production systems are characterized by production basically meant for self consumption. Training activity need to be modified to achieve increased productivity in mixed farming systems. Product diversification through introduction of various alternate crops and income diversification of small farmers especially rural youth and school dropouts by offering training on farm income generation activities like introduction of back yard poultry, wormiculture, honey, mushroom production, goatry, dairy etc.
3. In case of green revolution production system (Progressive farmers) technology transfer would be geared up to achieve maximum productivity of individual crop. Training activity need to be further strengthened by incorporation of various promising technologies. For example in case of rice, introduction of hybrid rice production technology for breaking yield barriers. Training activity on hybrid rice production techniques can become the part of school curriculum. Similarly demonstrations should also be simultaneously taken up to prove the yield potentiality of new crops and new technologies/components. Multi-component demonstrations need to be further strengthened. Extension activities like field days, film shows would also add further strength in this direction.
1. Emphasis on commercial production systems would include identification of crops and products which have demand in international market like medicinal aromatic rice of export value etc. Training programmes and demonstrations would include technologies for production of various crops having export value with due regard to quality and less pesticide residue effects. More focus should be given to eco-friendly technologies like integrated pest management trough IPM techniques, integrated nutrient management through use of vermicompost and organic farming. Linkages of progressive farmer groups with renowned export firms would be established to make export process more transparent.
2. Farmers would be equipped with safe and suitable technologies for increased production of such items which have global market. This is essential requirement under globalization under GATT especially to safeguard human health with minimal pesticide or other residues.
3. Experience from KVK, Medak in Andhra Pradesh suggests that rural women play an important role in preservation of biodiversity of various plans having value in terms of food, high productivity, resistance to various biotic and abiotic stresses apart from usefulness in treatment of various diseases of plants, animals and human beings. Efforts have already been made in the form of creating awareness for identification of varieties, species and plants. Women work force training is still a weak link in our Rice Production system.
KVK’s may prepare farmers to preserve biodiversity. This needs proper linkages with lead institutes. The main objective would be to establish an altogether innovative concept of “Rural genebanks” by proper harnessing of indigenous wisdom and scientific talent.
4. Education & Training
Rural women constitute major workforce in Indian agriculture. Studies
conducted and data generated in this regard suggests that in spite of their significant role in food production, value addition, conservation of bio-diversity and environment etc, they remained as invisible farmers. The invisibility of women as a farmer is due to the fact that women are engaged mostly in production activity but they don’t have a role to play in remunerative activity. We must focus on effective use of small tools and implements to reduce women drudgery, training on income generation activities to facilitate greater role in decision making and economic independence of rural women. Efforts would also be made to utilize their un-exploited potential in conservation of germplasm through establishment of rural genebanks and linking them to national repository by proper training and guidance.
5. Information Technology
Revolution in information technology and India’s contribution in this regard has created edge over the globe. It is proposed to utilize this powerful tool to bring revolutions in transfer of technology process in J&K. A beginning has to be made. The main agenda here would be to evolve an innovative concept, “e-Farmer, E-KVK and E-extension” for rapid and effective communication and transfer of technology.
6. Investments made in the past in the field of agricultural research, education and extension system has now created large “standing capacity” for India, in terms of availability of scientific man power and infrastructure.
Globalization of agriculture and advancement in the field of information technology has set new agenda for generation, assessment and dissemination of technologies in agricultural and allied fields. Hence, there is an urgent need to reorient the present extension system in general and the technology transfer process in Particular
7. The following broader areas need to be set into motion for technology transfer
· Rural income generation
· Environment preservation
· Conservation of biodiversity
· Sustainability of natural resources
· Diversification
· Improvement in status of women and other disadvantaged groups
· Exploitation of commercially viable technologies and enhancement of export potential
8. Reformation model Annexure I, SKUAST component of Broad Base Agric.Extension Model Annexure II & other documents are enclosed.

Homeschooling in the GardenBy Nancy CarterDo you already find yourself dreaming of working in the soil this spring? Of getting your hands dirty and watching for those little green sprouts to magically appear? Why not use your garden planning time as the ultimate homeschool unit study? Don’t think of gardening as something that takes away from your academics time. Think of it as something that can enrich it.

Involve the children in your research. Gardening will provide wonderful hands-on activities that can truly bring learning to life for your children. It’s something that both boys and girls can enjoy. You don’t have to live out in the country to have a garden. You can start with just a small spot in your yard, containers on your porch, or even a small herb garden in your windowsill. When I was a little girl, I had a wonderful grandmotherly type babysitter who kept a garden in her backyard. My mother often commented about how when she’d pick me up at the end of the day Mama Linda would have all of us kids sitting under a shade tree snapping green beans. We thought it was a wonderful treat to “get” to work in her garden.

Create a garden notebook with all of your plans together in one spot. Start by working together to create a list of all the fruits and vegetables that you eat or enjoy. Don’t feel like you have to grow a patch of squash if your family won’t eat it. Spend your time on things that you all will actually use! Keep it simple. Assign different children to be in charge of certain plants. Narrowing their focus will help keep the tasks from seeming too overwhelming, while also helping your child to really research the best way to care for their plants. Children can find helpful growing information on the Internet, in books and magazines, and from experienced gardeners to put in their notebooks. Practical projects often help encourage even the most reluctant readers and writers. It gives learning purpose and brings satisfaction from a job well done. Watching those first little sprouts develop into an ear of corn, a watermelon, or giant sunflower can really make an impact on a child’s life.

Gardening helps mind, body, and spirit. Researching and planning for your garden involves reading, math, and science and encourages higher level thinking skills. You’ll also be able to use your notebook to journal when and where you plant things. Track the temperature and rain, fertilizing, how much you have to water them, and their growth.

Being outdoors in the sunshine is great for the body. Breathing in the fresh air and eating items straight from your garden can go a long way toward a healthier lifestyle for your family. Gardening provides nutritious food and exercise for growing bodies during those impressionable years. Likewise, the peace and quiet of working with your hands in the garden is good for the spirit, and gardening can help bring many Bible truths to life. The parables of the farmer in Matthew 13 truly come to life when children see how important preparing the soil is when they are trying to grow something.

Consider different types of gardens: • Traditional Garden—Grow plants directly in the soil in your backyard. One big advantage is how economical this type of garden is. It can be as large or small as you want.

• Lasagna Garden—Grow plants without digging by planting in soil covered with a barrier layer (such as newspaper), compost, and mulch. The advantages are that there is no need to dig, it conserves water, there are fewer weeds to pull, it prevents erosion, and it improves the soil.

• Container Garden—Grow plants in containers rather than planting directly into the ground. Advantages are that there is no digging in your yard, your garden is portable and decorative, and it is susceptible to fewer weeds and soilborne diseases.

• Raised Bed/Square Foot Garden—Grow plants in raised beds enriched with compost about one foot deep and 3-4 feet wide. Advantages with this type of garden include that the close planting creates a microclimate that conserves moisture and reduces weeds; it is easier to maintain; the soil is not compacted by walking on it; and higher yields are obtained.

A subject within gardening that’s interesting to study with your children is companion planting. Companion planting is the method of planting certain pairs or groups of crops in closer proximity because they benefit each other. Native Americans planted the “Three Sisters” together—corn, pole beans, and squash—so that they could benefit from each other. The corn provides a structure for the beans to climb, eliminating the need for poles. The beans provide the nitrogen to the soil that the other plants need, and the squash spreads along the ground, monopolizing the sunlight and thereby preventing weeds. The squash leaves act as a “living mulch,” creating a microclimate that retains moisture in the soil. The squash also deters pests with its prickly vines. Companion plants can benefit each other by repelling pests, encouraging beneficial insects, providing shelter or structure for each other, improving flavor, and enriching the soil. Carrots Love Tomatoes, by Louise Riotte, is a wonderful handbook for learning more about this method.

Also do some research on succession planting. Succession planting helps maximize your garden season’s potential. You can either plant different varieties of the same crop so they’ll mature at different rates, stagger when you plant crops so that they’ll mature at different times, or plant one crop and then another in the same space. Succession planting is a great way to increase your harvest by maximizing your use of space and timing. Often you can start off with a cool season crop like lettuce, follow it up with tomatoes that thrive in the heat, and then finish off the season with a third crop that grows well into the fall, such as spinach.

Now is the time to start planning, though. Select your plants. Draw out a design of your garden. Gather the materials you’ll need. If you’re planning on a container garden, keep your eye out for containers that you can use. If you’re going to do a lasagna garden, start saving your newspapers and cardboard boxes. If you want to use compost in your garden, start your own worm bin or compost pile to discard your kitchen waste and improve your soil quality. Start building raised beds or gathering materials so you can start seeds indoors. You can also incorporate history into your studies in the garden. Study the Victory Gardens of World War II and discover how Americans grew 40 percent of their vegetables, allowing the War Department to purchase the mass-produced vegetables for the troops overseas. During that time, emphasis was placed on making gardening a family or community effort—not a drudgery but a pastime and a national duty. We can learn a lot from history. As Cicero once said, “If you have a garden and a library, you have everything you need.” Do a little gardening with your kids this year. No green thumb is required, just a love of learning and a willingness to get your hands dirty! Copyright 2008. Originally appeared in TheOld Schoolhouse Magazine, Winter 07/8.Used with permission. Visit them atwww.TheHomeschoolMagazine.com.For all your homeschool curriculum needs visit the Schoolhouse Store.

SUCCESS STORY OF  MINI DALL MILL OF BALAJI GRIHA UDYOG, RISOD DISTT:- WASHIM (MAHARSHTRA)

P.P.Shelke, SMS (Agril.Engg)

•4.          Details of the Farm (Size, Location, Water availability etc.)

Size :- The capacity of the mini dall mill is 1 Tonne per day

Location:-  Minis Dall Mill is located at Risod

Water availability:- Scarce(in summer)  to medium (round the year)

Balaji Griha Udyog Risod is a small scale industry owned by the family of Shri Agrawal.  They are maintaining Chakki, Pulveriser, Papad making unit, Shewaya making machine since last 8 years.  They observed that the demand for processing of pigeon pea , green gram, black gram and Bengal gram is increasing from the clients.  They were initially processing these pulses by use of burr mill already established in their unit.  However, the recovery of dall was less and breakage was more.  Once he came to KVK and contacted Shri P.P.Shelke, the then Programme Coordinator, KVK Karda.  He then took him to the Pulses Processing Demonstration unit of KVK and explained all the details of the mill.  He again suggested that there is an agriculture exhibition at Dr.P.D.K.V. Akola during the year 2007 and Shri Agrawal should visit the exhibition to know about the latest prices of machineries being displayed by Dr.P.D.K.V. Akola and other manufacturers licensed by Dr.P.D.K.V. Akola.

Shri Agrawal went to Akola and discussed many questions to Shri Bhende, Senior Scientist of AICRP on Farm Implements and Shri Borkar, Associate Professor of Agril Process Engineering Department of Dr.P.D.K.V. Akola.  Later on he was convinced that the mini Dall Mill designed by Dr.P.D.K.V. Akola is worth for his business.  He came to his residence from Akola.

He again contacted with Shri P.P.Shelke, the then Programme Coordinator, KVK, Karda and discussed about his observations made at exhibition.  It was later on suggested to explore the possibility of getting a second hand Dr.P.D.K.V. Mini Dall Mill from nearby area.  Many dall mills have been established in the area.  Some of them are working but some are lying idle for want of power.  Shri Agrawal has already established a 20 H.P. generator to carry on his business since last one year.  Therefore, it was planned to have the second hand dall mill from nearby district.  Shri Agrawal made a survey in villages in nearby area and was successful in getting the unused dall mill, which was not running for want of power and other problems in adjacent District of Hingoli.  The deal was finalized and machine was purchase with Rs. 25000.  It was brought to Balaji Griha Udyog in December 2007 and foundation and electrification was done.  The cost incurred was about Rs. 5000 and the total cost of establishment of dall mill was Rs. 30000.

Mr. Agrawal and His family is associated with Agricultural Engineering and Home Science Department of  Suvide Foundation’s Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Karda Distt. Washim.

•6.          Names of Central Sector /State Schemes utilized by the farmer and the period.

The success story is generated through the Agricultural Engineering Division of Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Karda, which is a centrally sponsored scheme of ICAR under NGO.

     7. Technologies/ Good Agriculture Practices/Facilities/Benefits obtained with details.

Beginning:-

Mini dall mill was started from January 2008.  Efforts were made to popularize the mini dall mill through cable television and some pamphlets were distributed in nearby villages to attract the customers.  Since the mini dall mill is established at Risod, there was need to attract the customers from nearby villages to keep the mill in running condition.  Advertisement was focused on target people with highlighting the services combined with generator facility so that the clients were in a position to get their pulses processed in load shading hours also.

8.      Details of results obtained due to the adoption of technologies (Season wise crops grown, techniques adopted, results achieved etc.)

i) Productivity observed:-

Following quantities of pulses were processed during the last few months.

Month

Pigeon Pea

Green Gram

Black Gram

Total Quantity

February 08

700

250

300

1250

March 08

600

200

200

1000

April 08

400

200

150

750

May 08

400

180

180

760

June 08

150

50

60

260

July 08

150

50

60

260

August 08

50

30

20

100

September 08

50

40

30

120

Total

2500

1000

1000

4500

ii) Cost of production per unit quantity:-

    The rates of pulses processing are Rs. 2per Kg.  The actual expenses on processing are electricity used for  3H.P. ,per hour charges are Rs. 5 /unit.  The total consumption of 3 units in 1 hour will be there.  The amount on electricity use will be about Rs. 15 per hour.  Processing of 100 Kg pulses will be carried out in one hour, from which 200 Rs. Will be recovered.

iii)  Net Income per unit operation:-

Gross Income:-

Month

Pigeon Pea

Amount

Green Gram

Amount

Black Gram

Amount

February 08

700

2100

250

500

300

600

March 08

600

1800

200

400

200

400

April 08

400

1200

200

400

150

300

May 08

400

1200

180

360

180

360

June 08

150

750

50

100

60

120

July 08

150

750

50

100

60

120

August 08

50

150

30

60

20

40

September 08

50

150

40

80

30

60

Total

2500

7500

1000

2000

1000

2000

Gross

11500

Income from By Product:-

Month

Pigeon Pea

Amount

Green Gram

Amount

Black Gram

Amount

February 08

175

2100

25

300

30

360

March 08

150

1800

20

240

20

240

April 08

100

1200

20

240

15

180

May 08

100

1200

18

216

18

216

June 08

37.5

450

5

60

6

72

July 08

37.5

450

5

60

6

72

August 08

12.5

150

3

36

2

24

September 08

12.5

150

4

48

3

36

Total

625

7500

100

1200

100

1200

Gross

9900

•3.    Gross Income in 8 months = 21400Expenditure:-

Month

Electricity

Labour

Advertisement

February 08

500

500

300

March 08

500

500

100

April 08

500

500

100

May 08

500

500

100

June 08

100

200

100

July 08

100

200

100

August 08

100

200

100

September 08

100

100

100

Total

2400

2700

1000

Gross Expenditure

6100

NET INCOME

Income

Expenditure

Processing Charges

By Product

Labour

Electricity

Advertisement

A

B

A

B

C

11500

9900

2700

2400

100

Income (A+B) =21400

Expenditure(A+B+C) =5200

NET INCOME = 16200

It reveals that Rs. 2025 is net income received during last 6 months.  It may also be seen that the amount of Rs. 30000/- was invested in the beginning and about 54% amount has been recovery during the period of 8 months.  The rate of return on investment is 6.75% per month.  Hence it shows that the unit is successful in operation.

•iv)             Price realized per tone:-

It will be observed that 5.75 tonnes of material has been processed during the period mentioned above.  The total amount of 16200 has been received as net profit , which indicates that 2817.39 Rs. Per tonne have been realized.

•v)                Natural resources saved/conserved like soil, water etc.

By means of processing by pulses processing mill , the losses of grain due to breakage have been saved.  The output has saved at least 23% losses due to correct dehulling and splitting of the grain.  The edible portion is 23% higher as compared to other traditional practices like use of burr mill and household manual burr mills.

      vi)     Product quality improvement:-

                The processed pulses were mostly of Grade 1 called Fataka in traditional market.  Second grade called 1 ¼ number pulses were less as compared to traditional practice.  The commercial value of the product was at least 21% more than that of processing by traditional way.

       Market to pulses processing operations is mostly from villagers who are in need of processing for domestic consumption.  Nearby are is rich in production of pigeon pea, green gram, black gram and Bengal gram.  Therefore, till today the market is from private parties. 

Export Market:-  Although there exists much potential for export of pulses in other countries, the potential has been exploited.  Efforts will be made to produce export quality organic pulses and will be packed in good presentable packing and then export will be undertaken. Which will take at least one or two years.

•10.                      Factors contributing to success:- 

Guidance from KVK and the keen interest , experience of Shri Agrawal are the major factors contributing to success.

    11.  Any other relevant information:-

     Expansion and Future Plans:-

M/S Balaji Griha Udyog has another site where the traditional unit of Chakki is in operation.  Mr. Agrawal expanded the Dall mill unit during this period and has modified another machine by putting brush rollers inside the machine for grain cleaning and polishing.  The machine is successfully being used for polishing the grains like wheat and sorghum as per the requirement of the clients.  Mr. Agrawal has shown his interest to add specific gravity separator for grain grading service during the harvesting and saling of produce by the farmers.  It has been the demand from the farmers for grading and polishing of damaged grains due to uncertain rains and damage due to fungal growth on the grains.

American beach resorts can be an excellent choice for families that want a fun-filled and relaxing vacation. Beaches offer a wide range of activities to insure the entire family will find something enjoyable during their stay.Beach ActivitiesA day at the beach can include, swimming, jogging, walking, volleyball, flying kites, building sand castles, shell collecting, sunbathing, napping, picnics and best of all, relaxing. Bring a beach umbrella, beach chair, towels, sunblock, eyewear, camera, water, snacks, binoculars, a novel and don’t forget your bathing suit!Boating and FishingBeach destinations often have a nice variety of boat cruises, including, nature cruises, scenic cruises, sunset cruises, , site-seeing, eco-tourism trips, kayaking adventures and fishing charters. The array of guided trips gives families a good choice of events, and there is something for everyone. For the more independent and experienced vacationer, boat and other watercraft rentals are another option.When chartering a boat, it may be a good idea to consider the weather, traffic, and other factors, and plan ahead. Some boats can be chartered on short notice, while others may be booked up to a year in advance. Depending on the trip, season and vessel you might need sunblock, camera, insect repellent, water, snacks, a light jacket or even rain gear. Information on what to bring is typically available by contacting the captain beforehand.On nature cruises you might encounter are any number of wildlife and waterfowl including deer, ducks, geese, herons, egrets, plovers and other shorebirds, whales, porpoises, otters, seals and more. Local guides know the best spots and are eager to guide visitors on trips that just cannot be viewed from land.Fishing guides might fish for flounder, trout, bluefish, croakers, spot, drum, striped bass, shark, sea bass, tautog, tuna, billfish, mahi-mahi, wahoo or other fish, depending on the season, boat and destination. Other trips will feature crabbing, shrimping, clamming, or just exploring.CrabbingCrabbing is an enjoyable family vacation activity. Catching blue crabs does not require much in the way of equipment or skill. Crabbing can be done from a boat, pier, near bridges or along the shoreline. Crabbers need only a line, weight, bait and dip net for the traditional rig, or an inexpensive crab trap, which eliminates the need for a dipping crabs up. A more basic rig is just twine, a sinker and whatever bait you can obtain, tied on the line. The line is then lowered into the water, and gently raised once a tug is felt.Serious crabbing baits include fresh fish, eels, bull lips and other baits but the most basic bait, chicken necks, work just as well on a hand line. The traps are used in a similar fashion, except that the trap is lifted sharply to close the doors suddenly and capture any crabs that are inside.Crabs should be kept damp and cool and steamed as soon as possible. They are simple to cook, and can be steamed whole or chilled, then the backs removed and rinsed out before steaming. In either case, the crabs are sprinkled with crab seasoning and steamed until they are bright orange and serve with melted butter and a cold refreshment. Crab meat is also excellent in a variety of dishes and even freezes well for short periods.ClammingClamming is a family activity everyone can enjoy on a beach vacation. Clams are easy to find, cook and handle. Locals catch clams by raking, wading, and signing. Some clamming areas can be reached on foot. Boaters can explore even more possibilities. You can also use a local guide to assist you on an enjoyable clamming trip.

Birdwatching

Many beach resorts are located very close to state parks, national parks, wildlife refuges and other bird santuaries. These areas offer plenty of natural habitats for songbirds, shorebirds, waterfowl, birds of prey and other birds.

Dining OutAfter a day at the beach you can stop for a cool ice cream cone, have a nice dinner while watching the sunset, or visit a local niteclub. Beach destinations are also known for fresh seafood. Depending on the location, you might find fish, lobsters, crabs, shrimp, crawfish, oysters, clams, mussels, scallops or other seafood as the fresh catch. Local cuisine varies but most  beach destinations will have something for everyone.

FestivalsFestivals are often an enjoyable activity during a beach vacation. Festivals usually combine, food, shopping and entertainment in one safe and easy to find location. Most beach resorts offer a series of festivals over the season. Popular themes usually include food celebrations, art, crafts, music, harvests, folklore, collecting and other interests.AccommodationsBeach resorts usually offer a wide range of accommodations. Vacationers will find vacation rentals, condos, cottages, hotels, motels, inns, bed and breakfasts, camping facilities or other options.Vacationers can sometimes get excellent rates and availability in the off season. During the peak seasons, rates are higher and accommodations are much harder to book. Visitors are advised to check for availability well in advance in most cases.

Experienced visitors often develop a long term business relationship with a beach resort vacation rental owner. Most small vacation rental businesses cater to travelers  that visit several times over the season. These repeat visitors may find that a vacation rental or bed and breakfast business will offer them unbeatable pricing and ammenities in the long run, once they have returned a few times.

“THE HISTORY OF SUGAR IS A DEBATE ABOUT POLITICS, SCIENCE, ECONOMY AND SOCIETY IN A REMOTE COLONY LIKE MAURITIUS” WITH REFERENCE TO THE 19TH CENTURY MAURITIUS

The 18th century was marked by the fights between British, French and Dutch to control the sugar and slave trade, the two most profitable activities in the region. The repeated attacks on the British commercial ships by French corsairs and pirates made the British take over Mauritius. In 1810 Mauritius became a British colony. However, the British found themselves with a complex situation, which differentiated Mauritius from their other colonies. Why was it so difficult for the British to administer the island? What made Mauritius geographically, administratively and culturally so different?

Mauritius was Britain’s only colony East of the Cape of Good Hope and it did not fit in the geographical areas mapped out by the British for administrative purposes. It could not be considered as part of East Africa or South Asia as it was historically and culturally different. In Mauritius the British were confronted with a large settler populations of European descent, hostile to British rule, laws and institutions. Furthermore the capitulation act made it even more difficult for the British to impose its legal system. The consequences were that the British Governors, like Farquhar, the first governor, for example had to turn a blind eye on the enforcement of laws like the abolition of slave trade and many amelioration in the slave system, and this, unfortunately in complete opposition to the politics of the British administration

Has the distance with England and the resulting isolation of Mauritius played an important part in the difficulty for the British to administer the island?

It seems that the remoteness of Mauritius had indeed played a determining role in the obstacles encountered by the British for the proper running of the island. Mauritius was, at first, administered as a Crown Colony but from 1815 and would onwards be administered by the Colonial Office, itself a branch of the Department for War and Colonies, which also administered colonies, acquired from France and Spain. It should be remembered that Mauritius was not yet a ‘sugar colony’ and thus could not be classed with the West Indians islands. Administrators in England had little detailed and up to date information on Mauritius. French colonists often bypassed the Colonial Office and intervened with the crown or with politicians in England directly.

Which were the laws, which the French colonist opposed more vehemently? How would land, labour and capital be used to build a trivial mono-crop economy in the 19th century Mauritius a British colony? How could politics help to set the scene for the sugar economy? How would science help to increase in the sugar yield, how would the economy help to find market for the product and finally how would society be determined by the sugar economy and provide the setting to accommodate all the rest for the glory of the mono-crop economy but also for the glory of the British empire?

To be able to grasp fully the history of sugar in the 19th century it should be divided into three important periods. The first period would be between 1810 and 1834, between the time where the British took over Mauritius and made slave trade illegal opening the door to the abolition of slavery and the arrival of the first Indian coolies. A second period which covers 1835 to mid 1860’s, the time of sugar boom and a thriving economy before the sugar decline caused both by natural calamities and fluctuations of the international market. And a third period which covers 1861 to 1900 the period covering the centralization of sugar production in factories leading to the “Grand Morcellement” and the emergence of small planters. In each of the three periods it will be studied how politics, science economy and society played their part .

This section would deal with how the combination of land, labour, capital would achieved to set the basis for a mono-crop economy between 1810 and 1834, between the time where the British took over Mauritius and made slave trade illegal which would later bring about the abolition of slavery and the arrival of the first Indian coolie.

Firstly, it would be seen how politics had helped to set the scene for a mono-crop economy? In 1810 – 1814 after the treaty of Paris, the British would have permanent control over the isle De France. . They would return and harbourless Reunion to the French made only minor changes to Mauritian political system… The first the British would use Port Louis as a trading post as the French had done. If the Franco had continued they could have develop a diversified economy. But the British rule was unable to support a diversified economy so they would completely transform the economic system of the island.

Prior to 1810 the Mauritian privateers and the French naval squadron captured more than 500 British and allied prizes and there were worth at least 80 million gold Francs. But with the formal cooperation of Mauritius in British Empire would bring an end to the island’s role of an important entrepot. They would implement the protectionist policies in adopting the navigation acts of 1815. The navigation law prohibited British colonies from trading with foreign merchants

As from 1810 the island had 9000 to 10000 acres of land under sugar cane, this surface increased during the first year of British rule. But it will not be until the late 1920’s that sugar would dominate the island’s economy. In 1813 the British will adopt the Proclamation of 4th January 1813. They will repeal all the existing laws previously passed by the French administration. The parliament passed the trade bill in 1825 allowing Mauritian sugar to compete on an equal footing with the West Indian sugar new stimulus was given to the expansion of the sugar industry. .

Concerning labour the British policies would be to abolish slave trade. Though the act to abolish this trade was the first of such legislation, passed with the aim that with the gradual reduction in the number of slaves, with the forecast that slavery would die a natural death. The immediate effect of the abolition of the slave trade 1815 was a reduction in the supply of slave labour. Those reforms involving slavery, the removal of privileges of the judiciary and those touching on language and religion caused most opposition. Fears concerning British rule and policies, the fear of ostracism from their own community and the fact that they were nearly all large owners of slaves with much to lose from amelioration or ending of the slave trade, prevented any of them from identifying or supporting British policy wholeheartedly.

Proposed amelioration laws in the 1820’s sent further shock waves throughout the island, thus while West Indian Colonies were already anticipating and preparing for the ending of slavery. In Mauritius even after 1835 colonists were still expecting slavery to be reestablished. Despite sugar expansion, some slaves had managed to forge the semblance of a family and community life, achieved improved material standards and a certain measure of physical mobility. However, Governor Farquhar wanted to expand British policies in the Indian Ocean and to achieve this, greater influence in Madagascar was essential. Slaves continued to be brought from Madagascar as an integral part of policy of British expansion and of supplying Mauritius with provisions. Thus in Mauritius illegal slave trading continued and the British governor himself quietly ignoring all the disguised attempts to introduce slaves into the island

Did the fact that Mauritius was turned into a sugar colony helped in better management of the colony or not? After 1825 the year of the trade bill both the prices of slaves and the sales of slaves shot up dramatically and continued to rise. Though there was existence of free labour which was costly, it became the practice to hire slave labour where they could be more effectively used or retaining them where they should not have been retained. All policies pertaining abolition of slavery created great controversies The weaving of the ‘web’ of economic, political and socio-racial interest began in the rural districts. The combination of sugar interests and political power created situation where the main sugar producing regions produced active, vocal radical planter/politicians. In 1827, the ‘Comite Colonial’ was formed led by Adrien D’Epinay. Organized resistance started in 1829 and reached climax in 1834. It was the emergence of the planters as an active force in local national politics, in high finance and in the Judiciary. There were now pressing demands “to be relieved from the duty on the importation of their sugar into Great Britain for consumption”1. However, the capitulation treaty of 1787 guaranteed the maintenance of the privilege of free trade. So on 5 June 1824, Bathurst gave two alternatives to the Mauritian. Either to continue to enjoy free trade with foreign powers or have the same limitation as the West Indian Trade with Europe. They chose the second alternative. The conditions were sugar, coffee and other articles of growth of Mauritius would be charged the same duties as the West Indies after 1st January 1825. No foreign sugar was to be allowed in Mauritius. It was also convened that further measures were to be taken to prevent the introduction of slaves into the island. And finally that commercial relations between Mauritius and Europe were to be subjected to the same limitations as that between the British West Indies and Europe. Thus the political foundation for making the island a mono-crop economy was laid.

How had science helped in laying the foundation of the sugar economy? In the beginning of the 19th century sugar cane was grown on only a few large estate and a multitude of smaller, family owned ones where growing and milling was integrated into the estate and primitive technology used. The advent of British rule was a drastically transform the economy, society and political life of Mauritius The sugar industry really started in Mauritius after 1815 with British rule and only then did it begin to resemble more modern plantation system.

Sugar really took off until better methods of irrigation and communication were developed in the second half of the nineteenth century. Proliferation of water and steam mills replaced mills driven by animal and slave power. However, few changes were made in the cultivation processes, which remained very primitive. Slaves continued to perform the most laborious tasks on the plantation despite the increasing pressure on estates with steam and watermills to produce more sugar cane by extending cultivation. The use of steam and water mills increased rapidly with the number of steam mill jumping from 7 to 51 and consequently raising the output of sugar considerably from 87 to 137 tons. This is reflected in the rise of horses the preference of the Mauritian sugar planters. Methods of cultivating and processing the crop were slow to change. Cultivation of sugar in Mauritius required a very large number of labourers. Much of the labour was heavy, monotonous, grinding work especially at harvest time. Delay meant a fall in the quality of sugar.

As for the investment for greater sugar yield there was the necessity to look for better varieties which were achieved through the use of hybrids. Therefore since the 1830’s almost all canes in commercial cultivation have been hybrid crosses of the Noble Officianarum and Spontaneum. Hundred years ago cane cultivation and selection started in New Guinea. It was there where they grew sugarcane for chewing and ornamentation. From New Guinea people have learned how to propagate this S. Officianarrum. The cane was subjected to mutations through hybrids and change the characteristics of the Sugar cane for greater yield and that would grow faster and more. Cloning works well in the case of sugar, it consist of cutting a piece of cane planting in ground and went for it “bouture’

Now we are going to see how the economy had brought in its fold land, labour and capital to transform an economy based on free trade and diversified agriculture to a mono-crop economy. Henceforth, the pace of expansion of the sugar industry would be regular and would continue till the mid of the 19th century. Land, labour and capital would be the principal factors would shape the sugar island. Between 1824 and 1828 all traditional cash crops, coffee, indigo, ebony and cloves had been overtaken by sugar.

As it is seen in this table there as been a marked declined in all other crops at the expense of sugar cane. Though sugar already dominated the plantation scene in 1824 coffee, cloves, cotton and ebony were still highly produced. However in 1825 coffee would experience a decline of 50%, while cotton would know a steady decrease, the same would apply to indigo, however cloves would know a steady increase from 5839 pounds produced at a value of 5840 pounds sterling to 9370 pounds with a value of only 467 pound sterling thus accusing a decline in price. Ebony would have an increased in value in 1826 despite the decline in production but both the decline in production and value would continue in 1828 to 502 906 pounds produced for the market value of only 2185 pounds sterling. As for sugar there has been a regular pace in it’s gaining both in market value as a crash crop and in production. From 24,334 553 pound in 1824 with a value of 170, 342 it increased to a production of 21 739 766 in 1825 with a value of 184 788 and in 1828 reached a production of 48 350 101 with a market value of 512 717 pound sterling.2

Production and value (in sterling) of cash crops

1824 1825 1826 1827 1828

Coffee

Lbs 18 655 9004 2171 2977 1571

Value 672 252 66 122 70

Cloves

Lbs. 5839 7246 4917 7177 9370

Value 5840 724 344 4912 467

Cotton

Lbs 336623 302247 190429 101793 92577

Value 10908 8463 5713 3053 2368

Ebony

Lbs 551732 887218 200783 1502968 502906

Value 1986 3549 9017 6060 2185

Gums

Lbs - - 1219 - 5200

Value - - 11 - 62

Indigo

Lbs 1927 1946 1119 58 778

Value 385 456 224 12 156

Sugar

Lbs 24334553 21739766 42489416 40661202 48350101

Value 170342 184788 382405 395061 512717

Source: Collector of Customs, Blue Book, CO 172/53

In the acreage of crops grown wood grown would occupy 108 418 acres as compared to sugar only 10 221 acres, however in 1829 the acreages under wood would be 91 817 and 48 485 for sugar this tendency would increse and sugar would occupy in 1835 approximately 50% of the same acres found under wood that is 100 405 acres under wood and 57,933 acres under sugar. 3

The question concerning labour was the greatest thug of war between the British and the Franco-Mauritian. Before 1815 colonist used slaves less for profit than for convenience. Those slaves who were employed in agriculture mainly work in manioc and subsistence cultivation. The lack of interest on the part of the French colonist in agriculture was partly due to the possibilities of easy money. They were more interested in quick profits from more lucrative and less time consuming activities such as slaves trades, spices and other goods as well as corsairs activities. However, the abolition of slavery in contrast with other sugar colonies, which would experience declines, would have no incidence on the expansion of the Mauritian cultivation. The production was increased in two ways by increasing the land under cultivation and by improving production yield. In 1825 the year of the trade bill the production was 217 397, in 1826 a year after the trade bill Mauritius exported 18 970 tons of sugar and in 1827, two years after the bill the production would nearly doubled to 406 192 and this tendency would go on increasing till in 1935 the year after abolition of slavery the production would increase to 648 545 tons. ( Pp82/83 Bitter sugar).

What made the British support the monocrop-economy was that it did not want to have a financial burden to the empire for the island met with some dramatic incidents. The 1815 navigation act caused much trouble to the people on the island for the island was a lucrative market for goods produced elsewhere.

In 1816 a disastrous fire broke out in the capital and destroyed large part of commercial sector. Half the town was destroyed. The richest and most prosperous streets and ‘ magazines filled with provisions and merchandise from every quarter of the world and with colonial produce”4 were all gone in the winds. A loan of $30000(Spanish) to merchants was issued to counter effects of the fire. Farquhar approved another massive loan to merchants $75000 to the bank of Mauritius which had stopped making cash payment because of inflation and $75000 to four merchants.

By 1820 the island was plunged in a financial crisis Farquhar noted that’ inhabitants had extended sugar cultivation and there were already some valuable sugar estates’ 5.

From 1811 to 1850 Barclays and Blyth held ¾ of the sugar estates with capital investment of approximately 1 162 000 pounds. Example Bon Acceuil for 5500 pounds while they bought it at 30 000 poundsin1838. 6 The Blyth company started by James Blyth , the IBL, Taylors and Smith and company., Elias Mallac and company, and Rogers and company. These capital have often been active on the social front a contributor towards further development of Mauritius of the region.

As far as land concessions were concerned only the whites had the rights and the opportunities to have lands. The Franco-Mauritian were the only land owners of the island which their ancestors or themselves have earned out as concession under the French administration. And as it has been said before the Capitulation treaty to which every now and then the Franco-Mauritian would refer to their guaranteed property right. The population was made up of the whites, the coloured free and the slaves. The Franco-Mauritian who were whites were at the top of the social ladder while the slaves would be at the bottom of the ladder.

The slaves would form the main source of labour of the island. Mauritian slave owners proved to be even more vocal and hostile at amelioration than West Indian slave owners. However, since British took over the island the condition of slaves had improved, in particular laws on enfranchisement, the use of chains and improvements in road transport. Slave owners were against registration because they were afraid the slaves might acquire civil rights. Nevertheless, slave registration did not solve the problem of the illegal trade. As there were no actual inspection of slaves these certificates given to owner and the slave owner would promptly be sold to ship captains who would attempt to catch or buy slaves matching that description. One license was used for several slave ships In 1817 slaves were brought from other islands instead of being brought directly to Mauritius , slaves were often taken to the other islands around Mauritius and the later under license transferred to the Island. By 1820 a large number of native Africans were returned in the registers for the first time. Slaves continued to be illegally bought and sold by all sections of the slave-owning community until in the 1820.The activities of two civil commissaries, Blanchard and Vigoureux relating to illegal slave trading illustrate how it was difficult to implement British policies in 1819, the two were suspended by Governor Hall because of their complicity with slaves trades. Law ensured that an illegally landed slave became a legal slave if in possession of the claimant for three years. All these loopholes in the laws were fully exploited by the slave owners. Cholera claimed its first deaths in 1819 there were 7000 death. Slaves carrying loads were no longer in danger of being washed away by floods during periods of heavy rain as from 1822. Carts and carriages were introduced in large numbers as were draught animals , to release slaves for other occupations and also as an ameliorative measure for slaves.

Furthermore, a reorganization of slave labour began with the increasing in demand of slaves labour in the sugar industry. Reorganization took many forms. There were the transfers of slaves from dependencies to Mauritius and within Mauritius from estates to estates, from occupation to occupation. New categories of slaves emerged like field slaves, unattached slaves etc. The practice of hiring of slave labour like in the West Indies started and finally the use of women, aged and children started. Children were engaged in poultry keeping, cattle herding, guarding fields, and domestic services assisting in cleaning and cooking and even picking up weed. All policies pertaining abolition of slavery created great controversies.

How and to what extent sugar production has had a negative impact on the lives of slaves? The mortality rate among the slave population ensuring the sugar expansion was high and even illegal trading did not seem sufficient to replace the labour lost through ageing, mortality and manumission. “the extent to which sugar is cultivated in the different sugar colonies is generally speaking a most accurate index of the rate of mortality among the slaves”. 7

Moreover the introduction of female slaves on the plantation would have great post emancipation consequences. Medium slave owners had between 39-41 percent women while small owners 39-43 percent women the disproportionately high number of male slaves on sugar estates led to severe emotional and psycho-social problems among slaves male and female in Mauritius

More recent researches on the slave family have shown that there were other family forms that existed which did not fit the western model.. Whether the slaves were creole slaves (those born on the island) or African or Malagasy-born slaves was important.. Creole slaves had a whole series of family ties and a network of relationships sometimes extending over the whole island with various types of fictive kinship, while among non Creole slaves this was inexistent. Unfortunately, there are little information on the language, music and dances they had and also very little on their cultural and social life.

The sugar industry and the government British Indian Labourer even before abolition of slavery Indian Indentured labourer came. The first came in 1825 but in 1839 the sugar industry used the compensation to bring 25,000 Indian labourer to Mauritius at their own expense paying approximately 10 pounds per immigrant. In the decade before and after emancipation, three labour system, slavery, apprenticeship and indenture emerged and succeeded each others.

Because slaves were themselves considered as goods, they were included in the capital, they were not considered as human but rather sub-human creatures which were only means of productions. Except for high deforestation because which was caused by the plantations claiming more and more land from the forests.

The second period extends from 1835 to 1860 and it marks the ranging from sugar boom to the sugar decline. If the first period was the one laying the foundation of the mono-crop economy this one would be the establishment and the strengthening of this economy into a flourishing one. Again in this part the development of land, labour and capital would be examined under the four features that have affected the mono-crop sugar economy that is; politics, science, economy and society. This period would be marked by the arrival of the indentured labourer , the establishment of different institutions to help for the establishment of the sugar industry.

How would politic shape up the destiny of the island in the years 1835 to 1860? In 1840 former slaves/apprentices departed from the estates. The Colonial Government passed numerous ordinances in order to compel the free the slaves back to the estates. For example the government reserved the right to hunt and to fish and they (together with the Franco-Mauritian) wanted to encourage the apprentice to construct houses of rocks so as to force them to stay on the estates. But this would be to no avail. The Franco-Mauritian would get compensation from the British, however, they would try to raise taxes and apply them to the ex-apprentices themselves. It was difficult to negotiate a decent salary with the employees. The employers were afraid of giving bargaining power to the ex- slaves, for that would have been considered as a lost in dignity. Higher wages given to the former slaves would also mean changes in the field production method which they could not afford because of instability in sugar market. During the 1840’s the state was not inclined to experiment this. Instead they invested their compensation money in factory improvements. This removed many incentives to pay high labour. They would receive subsidy from the government. Moreover, apprentices were considered to be natural lazy while the fact was that free slaves had bad memories of work in canfield. The apprentices would leave the estates. Nevertheless, between 1845 –1846 there was a decreased in the freed slave population.

As for the Indentured labourer, Was it a continuum of slavery? According to members of anti-slavery movement the first Indian coolies who arrived in Mauritius had no government protection. In 1837 the English India Company recognized the potential for abuse of Indentured workers and they will pass regulation to restrict the coolie trade contracts could only last 5 years and they would remain 5 years ships. Ships had to meet basic humanitarian requirements. In 1838 or 1839 to 1842 there was suspension of the coolie trade. The colonial the government assisted the Indentured labourer. In 1843 immigration reopened there was a large influx of labour financed by the an annual sum of 25 000 pounds from the colonial revenues. This was known as the Bounty scheme under this scheme government contributed 6 to 7 pounds per adult imported and planters who introduced labour paid an additional charges of 2 pounds and 2 pounds and 6 shilling for recruits from Madras and Calcutta. 8 For the purpose of raising money for indentured labour the government imposed a consumption duty on all spirits manufactured in Mauritius or imported from abroad instead of imposing a tax on rural property owners. Again, it was on the poorest that the taxes fell.

On the other hand institutions, to strengthen the mono-crop economy, like The Mauritius Chamber of Commerce was established in January 1850, with the objective of receiving information in all matters of mercantile interest and to redress grievances. This allowed arbitration between disputants wishing to avoid litigation and willing to refer and to abide to the judgment of the Chamber. The committee role was to hear and decide on all commercial matters submitted to them, however the president ad the vice-president have the power to name a committee for the management of the affairs of the chamber and another committee for the examination of stores.

Researches with the view to increase the sugar yield as well as to make the sugar-cane more resistant to diseases were carried out. In 1840 the Oraheite, a variety of cane planted in Mauritius was attacked by bacteria the gumming disease or gummosis. The Royal Comity of Agricultural Research played a significant role in this field. In 1845 the society would form a special Committee de L’agriculture which would conduct a survey of agricultural practices. Technology had become important in the 19th century in all sugar colonies and in general the older colonies had the oldest technology. Mauritius could be considered a new island sugar estates. The Comite d’Agricutlture collected and published a corpus of knowledge about sugar cane. The Committee suggested the use of the Perusian Guano to partially offset the effect of the disease on the cane.

Hand in hand with these researches that continued on how to increase the sugar cane yield in British colony, the island was being equipped with the newest mills possessed the latest technologies, vacuum pans, centrifugal dryers were used for processing the cane faster. “Sugar production increased in the first half of the 19th century, technology improve with “ Moulin a vapeur, l’evaporation en triple effet, la cuisson sous vide, et l’essorage rapide du sucre avec des centrifuges suspendues types Weston”9

In 1832 there were no less than 32 firms in Port Louis. They brought goods like rice, ghee dholl and flour, which formed the basics for Indians diets. Sugar was in economic boom until 1860’s, the economy flourished under favorable labour conditions Indian labour lowered the cost of the use of Peruvian Guano and hence combined increased the yield of the the sugar cane which protected from the cane Borer and other pest in the 1950’s.

Despite more and more land being put under the sugar cane plantation the number of factories decreased. In 1853 Mauritius had 222 factories and in 1892 there were 104 and in 1908 only 66 remained

How would the demand of the economy shape up the labour? There were freed slaves population of ratio 3 men to 2 women was enough to ensure population growth. The former slaves could find better work in a thriving non-estate agricultural economy. The abolition forced the elite to reconsider the methods of sugar production. The estate owners had the options of ‘d’amadouer’ the ex-slaves back on their states with competitive wages but instead they decided to get cheap indentured labour from India.

As from 1834 to 1860, 290 000 Indian arrived. The presence of this large inexpensive and reliable labour force resulted in an increase in the sugar production. Mauritius became the British most important Sugar producing colony. Contracts would be limited to one year for the next 67 years. The British assisted with immigration after 1842 boom. In 1843, 30 318 men and 4307 women would arrive in Port Louis. The Representatives of the estates. After two days they would sign the working contract 42 and a 1/2 Piastre Espagnole. The local currency. Wages of Rs 5. Per month Rs 2. =1 piastre – till the 1860’s. Immigration will continue steadily – the flow of immigrants reach islands even after the week following Northern India 1857 Rebellion to resume.

As for the capita the economy was thriving, the influx of capital was great for the amount of sugar exported represent ed 9.4% of the world production and 7.4% of the world’s total sugar production by the 1850’s.

What impact would this large labouring class have on this emerging society?

With the expansion of the coolie trade, the trade with India expanded rapidly. The demography of the island would deeply be modify. The feeding and clothing of the immigrants would favour transactions with India. Indian firms established branches in order to take advantage of expanding commercial prospects. The British and the Indian firm were involved in the recruitment of contractual labourer and soon realize that they could laden the ships with goods from various origins. By 1840, it represented around 20% of the local imports.

The retail trade developed in the mid 19th Century after several major events which fundamentally changed the socio-economic structure of the island. The post abolition period with of 60,000 citizens created disruption in man labour which lead to the arrival of the Indian Indentured labourers, which in their large numbers had to be provided with consumables. Various ordinances would regulate the retail shop like for example Article 21 of ordinance 28 of 1845 stressed that shops should be located not more than one feet away from the main road. The restriction of sites. The arrival of the Chinese as shopkeepers and businessman would also create a lot of opposition, however, though in very small numbers the Chinese would come and would stay.

Regarding capital, the island had to face some troubles. During the 1830’s to 1840’s there was a shrinking in investment . This transform the sugar industry in both ways, there were much problem related to labour disputes and secondly in the 1840’s more and more of the parliaments were in favour of free trades. From the perspective of British investors the British investors started to prospect and competition was not in favour of the sugar industry.

The industry have been investing and borrowing heavily to improve factory . The metropolitan bankers were not worried that Mauritian investors may not be able be able to repay the loans. In 1848 to 1844 of the 5 British financial houses collapse the following the event several sugar estates and the bank of Mauritius failed as well . It was true that the free trade legislation of 1840 undermined the sugar industry but the fact remain that between 1843 to 1849 many estates improved their factory and remain fundamentally sound enterprise. Extended funds dried up . The British investors from 1832 to 1839 and 1848 pulled out their investment from Mauritius and they presented no wish to invest in the sugar industry because of continuing economics , linguistics and legal problems.

We have now reached the third period which covers the centralization of the sugar production in the factories leading to the ‘grand morcellement’ and to the emergence of the small planters class.

In 1851 the British parliament repeal the navigation law. The law when it was repealed triple the volume of trade in Port Louis and increased amount of Capital for the local merchants / traders Britain repeal policies new free trade policies encouraged the Mauritian traders to look for markets every where in the world. Mauritius would benefit the Indian, South African and Australian markets. In 1876 Mauritius adopted the Indian Silver Rupee as its currency in order to simplify transactions.

After the navigation act of 1815 was abrogated in 1851 by Britain the number of factories in the country reached its climax by 1853 and by 1880 the necessity to centralization of production was becoming urgent. In 1849 the colonial office allowed 3 years contract for Indian Indenture Labourers. By 1858-1859 there were 74 343 immigrants. The government and the planters were cooperating to sort this problem of persistent labour shortage. Immigration declined in 1860 when the sugar demand began to decrease. but in 1862 they would return to their five years contract again, they could stay for 10 years but taxes fell heavily on those labourer who did not engage on the second year indenture. However, contact with India was possible the labourer would go to India and bring the rest of their family to Mauritius . Unfortunately, the government of Mauritius had little regard for labour and rather assisted policies that were in favour of the plantation owners.

The colonial office also increased the percentage of women. In 1844 it was 17% , in 1849 it was 25% and in 1868 it was 40%. Between 1834 to 1909 the number of immigrants who have arrived in Mauritius amounted to 451 786 to work in the sugar industry only 294,197 remained in the island and became the majority of the population.

This increased in population would dramatically change the setting of the island’s land possession when in the late 1800 up to the first world war malaria the declining of prices of sugar and the low prices of sugar forced the planters to rationalize production. A new class emerged in the Mauritian society it was the small planters who with the grand morcellemnt would enter the market and would exploit the opportunities that exist.

So the British responded by excluding most indo-Mauritian from the colonial politics. However, the Franco-planters estimated that these small planters had to pay a tax to access to cane varieties thus funding institutions into which they had politically no voice.

The government would procure in cane varieties till 1868 through the Pamplemousses garden where new plot of new varieties of cane were getting acclimated to the island, selected and distributed. Franco-Mauritian asked for more cane varieties from the government and made sure that the acquisition of new cane became top priorities. They would reimburse the money they got from the sale of their cane. Because the chamber of Agriculture researches were irrelevant to the production and distribution of the sugar industries, estates would be trained to cultivated and acquire new plat technologies. The Franco-Mauritian limited their sugar cane distribution.

In 1900 there was severe lack of capital only 13 out of 141 estates, which were over 40 hectares, belonged to foreign companies. Foreign investors were limited and all of them were British. This dramatic changes in British sugar market had great effect on Mauritius till 1930. British adhered to free trade policy. The beet-sugar from Europe were allowed to enter British market they had a subvention from their government. The British government was convinced the European sugar bounties was killing the West Indian sugar cane industries to recover and the liberation of the market would allow it to recover. The British relied primarily on Germany , Austria, Hungary for its sugar.

The out break of the first world war interrupted the trade from Germany Ostrich and Hungary. This stopped the sugar price increased because many Europe’s sugar beet farms were destroyed in the war. Sugar cane increased in all around the tropics in Cuba and Java and Mauritius.

Hence politics, whether on the national basis or international scene would have an immediate effect on the sugar market. As far as science is concerned by June 1893 the Station Agronomic operated officially under the direction of Philip Boneame. There were intensive breeding effort which included mostly agronomy, botany chemistry entomology genetics all these discipline were put together to the study of only one crop.

The Franco-Mauritian elite dominated the island politics despite the British administration this would go till independence . The sugar baron need the British colonial government because the collaboration of the British administration was needed to develop the sugar industry. In the beginning of the 1850’s they started to lobby the British government regarding cane cultivation. They needed the sugarcanes to create new knowledge about sugar to improve sugar canes and greater sucrose output. The Franco Mauritian dominated the island politics the dorsal spine being sugar the chamber of agriculture had non official seats in the government but they had vested interest in issues regarding transportation, communication marketing and forestry.

The early 1860’s the Chamber of Agriculture had thought of using the government botanical garden at Pamplemousses to import cane varieties but the government took time to decide. They wanted to transform the botanical garden into a sugar research center, however the British botanist working in the garden opposed this. While the planters were mostly French the botanist were all British.

With regard to capital the in the 1860’s there was the introduction of steam ship improved access to the outside world. The steam vessels which could carry greater volumes of cargo, during the early 1860’s the opening of the two railway lines to improve inland transport from the north to the capital from south to the capital and in 1869 the PENINSULA AND ORIENTAL CAMPAIGN established a 2nd line from England to Australia via Mauritius. The journeys were made shorter and the extension of regional network and the rise in transaction regular lines established. By 1900 the steam would nearly take over the traffic between India and Mauritius and the ship tonnage reached unprecedented figures. For example in 1840 the tonnage was around 193 by 1885 the ship steamer name TAIF had a 2100 tonnage. As for the cable network it helped in linking Mauritius to the outside world was the Electric sub-marine cable as early as 1860 by the Eastern Telegraph which brought the first cable to the Indian Ocean to link Europe and India, wit Mauritius included in the network. However, Mauritius was linked only in 1906 together with Reunion and Madagascar.

Furthermore medium sugar industry would concentrate production as it would be uneconomical to run small estates between 40 to 200 hectares to put machines factory technology. In 1880 about 80 % of the factories were using boiling pan system with a great deal of energy wastage as compare to vacuum pipe. Furthermore they could maximize profit by using the bagasse to provide for energy as fuel, while before Mauritius reached advanced deforestation through the use of woods.

While science made much progress to help the economy other factors like natural hazards and the demand and supply laws in a market economy would play bitterly against the big plantocracy. There was cholera in three more occasions which gave rise to a number of deaths.. In 1854 claimed 7650 deaths, in 1856 there were 3250 deaths and finally in 1862 there were a death toll of about 3500. Natural hazards like in 1860’s cholera outbreaks In 1865 drought and the opening of the Suez Canal would divert trade elsewhere and the sugar glut on the market. Malaria of 1867 – 1868 which killed between 40,000 to 45,000 people. In 1886 there was a financial crisis which would have repercussions on the economy.

In 1866 and 1868 terrible outbreak of malaria kill approximately 50,000 people around one seventh of the island. Those who could afford would leave Port Louis. Between 1868 and 1914 the world sugar prices fell speedily France, Hungary, Netherlands, Australia and Germany would flood the world market with the beetroot sugar. Towards 1860’s there was the sugar sluts. Several factors brought this economic crisis, the terrible cyclone of 1868, drought in 1866, natural calamities. After the devastating cyclone of 1892 an epizootic disease affecting the cattle spread on the island the government procure loans to the sugar industry and their loans the sugar invested in railways construction and this therefore attracted investors, and boosted Mauritian economy. Even the prices paid to producers remain low the area under cane cultivation increased for example in 1890 there was a total production of 130 000 tons, in 1903 the production was over 200, 000 tons in 1909 it exceeded 250 000 tons and in 1913 it exceeded 250 000 tons.

Because of these different set backs the planters experienced in the economy regarding land and labour, like for example in 1870 Mauritius imported sugar from western India ocean region to re-export to Australia, United kingdom and the Cape of Good Hope. By 1880 continental India was among the first partners to receive goods from foreign origin from Mauritius. Re-export trade made up 6% of the colony’s export 1885 and it rose to 10% in 1890 and to 16% in 1895. 8% of the export to India in 1880 consisted of re-export goods and 14% in 1895 and by 1900 India would import 50% of our export, they initiated the cost production to cut measures and centralizing sugar production by closing down sugar factories from 303 in 1863 to 188 in 1888. Amalgamating some other estate only 115 in 1901.

So the planters decided the splitting and selling of estate the ‘Grand Morcellement” will be beneficial to the Indians. A new class of Indian of land owner emerged. These several events gave rise to the growth of villages. Gujjrati invested large sums in immovable property especially in the town. In the last decades of the 19th century the increased investment in plantations by taking control of the estates or indirectly through loans or advance on crops. For example I.M Sulliman and Ajum Goolam Hossen directly owned several sugar estates with factories in the 1890’s. The Gujarati participated in the business of buying estates from bankrupt owners and parceling them out selling them to former indentured workers. Some firms took charge of the morcellement while others finance the process through loans to interested parties.

The morcellement had sold small amounts of properties of their properties in 1830’s and 1840’s but in the mid 1860’s there were the grand morcellement 1/3 of the land would be sold by 1916 which meant 37% of the land under sugar cane plantation. They were the first non-whites to have lands in the islands. Sometimes the whites would sell one hectares of land which would be divided into small plots of less than one hectare. Between 1851 and 1881 the Indian would move in all fields and would thus become the island’s artisans , coachman and all types of petty jobs in the lower class level giving rise to the ethnic specialization in activities.

In conclusion the nineteenth and the arrival of the British would bring dramatic changes in the primitive politics, science, economy and the budding Mauritian society. protect itself but also for the glory of the British Empire, the British would take over the island, put up with the French ways and culture while even at the very beginning land and labour would be subjected to imposed policies which were often difficult to implement. Policies like the abolition of slave trade and later slavery, itself. The change from a thriving free trade economy based on privateering and also a diversified agriculture to one of a mono-crop cash economy and finally controversially enough for the well-being of a $ single crop a diversified population of diverse origin emerged giving rise to one of the most beautiful population setting in the world.